Introduction. Every individual in an organisation behaves in a particular way. Some are cooperative, others difficult; some accept change easily, others resist; some perform consistently, others fluctuate. To a manager, this behaviour often appears confusing and unpredictable. In order to understand and explain such behaviour in a systematic manner, behavioural scientists have developed certain models of individual behaviour. These models are nothing but simplified frameworks or “mental maps” which highlight the key forces that operate inside an individual and in his environment and show how they combine to produce behaviour. Knowledge of these models enables a manager to interpret the behaviour of subordinates more accurately and to influence it more effectively.
Meaning of Models of Individual Behaviour
A model is a simplified representation of reality. It picks up the essential elements of a phenomenon and shows their relationships in a diagrammatic or conceptual form. A model of individual behaviour therefore explains, in a simplified way, how and why individuals behave as they do in a particular situation.
Different scholars have emphasised different aspects of human behaviour such as stimulus–response relationship, internal mental processes, learning from others, unconscious motives and self-concept. As a result, several models of individual behaviour have emerged. Each model has its own assumptions, strengths and limitations, and each throws light on behaviour from a particular angle.
Basic Behaviour Equation
Before discussing specific models, it is useful to recall the well-known equation given by Kurt Lewin:
B = f (P, E)
where B = Behaviour, P = Person and E = Environment.
This equation suggests that behaviour is a function of both the characteristics of the person (needs, values, attitudes, personality, abilities) and the environment (organisation, group, physical setting, culture). All models of individual behaviour are different elaborations of this basic idea.
Major Models of Individual Behaviour
The important models of individual behaviour generally discussed in organisational behaviour and psychology for managers are:
- Stimulus–Response (S–R) or Behaviouristic Model
- Cognitive Model
- Social Learning (Social–Cognitive) Model
- Psychoanalytic Model
- Humanistic or Self-Concept Model
These models are explained below.
1. Stimulus–Response (S–R) or Behaviouristic Model
The earliest scientific approach to behaviour is the behaviouristic or S–R model, associated with psychologists like Watson, Pavlov and Skinner. This model emphasises the relationship between a stimulus (S) coming from the environment and the response (R) shown by the organism.
(a) Basic Assumptions
- Behaviour is a result of external stimuli; internal mental processes are ignored or treated as a “black box”.
- If a particular response is followed by a reward, the S–R connection is strengthened and the response is likely to be repeated.
- If the response is followed by punishment or no reward, the connection is weakened and the response tends to disappear.
(b) Main Features
- Focus is on observable behaviour, not on thoughts or feelings.
- Learning is viewed as the formation of habits through conditioning (classical or operant).
- Behaviour can be shaped by manipulating environmental stimuli and consequences (reinforcement, punishment, extinction).
(c) Managerial Implications
- Managers can use rewards (praise, pay, promotion) to strengthen desired behaviours like punctuality, quality work and cooperation.
- Undesired behaviours such as absenteeism, indiscipline or unsafe acts can be reduced through non-reinforcement or punishment.
- Behaviour modification techniques in organisations (like token systems, incentive schemes) are largely based on this model.
(d) Evaluation
The behaviouristic model offers a clear, simple and practical way of influencing behaviour through control of stimuli and consequences. However, it ignores internal cognitive processes, motives and feelings and therefore gives an incomplete picture of human behaviour, especially of complex managerial and professional work.
2. Cognitive Model
The cognitive model developed as a reaction against the limitations of the behaviouristic model. It emphasises that human beings are not passive responders to external stimuli; rather, they are thinking, reasoning and interpreting individuals.
(a) Basic Assumptions
- Behaviour is largely determined by the way an individual perceives and interprets the situation.
- When a stimulus is presented, the individual does not respond mechanically; he or she processes information, forms beliefs and expectations and then decides how to act.
- Thoughts, attitudes, values and decision-making processes therefore play a central role in behaviour.
(b) Main Features
- Greater emphasis on mental processes like perception, attribution, problem-solving and decision-making.
- Behaviour is seen as goal-directed: individuals choose behaviours that they believe will lead to desired outcomes.
- Errors in thinking (wrong assumptions, biased perceptions, faulty information) can lead to inappropriate behaviour.
(c) Managerial Implications
- Managers must pay attention to employees’ perceptions and beliefs about fairness, rewards, leadership and organisational policies.
- Effective communication, participation in decision-making and clarity of expectations become very important.
- To change behaviour, it is often necessary to first change the way people think about themselves, their job and the organisation (e.g., through counselling, training, feedback).
(d) Evaluation
The cognitive model gives a more realistic picture of human behaviour than the S–R model, especially in complex organisational situations. However, it may sometimes underestimate the role of unconscious motives and social learning.
3. Social Learning (Social–Cognitive) Model
The social learning model, associated with Bandura and others, combines elements of both behaviouristic and cognitive models and emphasises that people often learn by observing others in a social context.
(a) Basic Assumptions
- Individuals learn not only from direct experience but also by observing the behaviour of others (models) and the consequences of that behaviour.
- Behaviour is influenced by a continuous interaction between the person, behaviour and environment (known as reciprocal determinism).
- Self-efficacy (belief about one’s own ability) and expectations about outcomes strongly affect behaviour.
(b) Main Features
- Importance of role models such as supervisors, seniors, successful colleagues and even organisational heroes.
- Individuals imitate behaviours that they see being rewarded and avoid behaviours that they see being punished.
- Learning occurs through processes of attention, retention (remembering), reproduction (actually performing) and motivation.
(c) Managerial Implications
- Managers must recognise that their own behaviour serves as a model for subordinates; “people do what they see leaders doing.”
- Programmes like mentoring, coaching and on-the-job training rely on social learning.
- Organisational culture is transmitted largely through observational learning – new employees watch how experienced members behave in different situations.
(d) Evaluation
The social learning model presents a very useful and realistic picture of how behaviour spreads within organisations. It shows that behaviour change can be achieved by changing the social environment and role models, not only through direct rewards and punishments.
4. Psychoanalytic Model
The psychoanalytic model, originally developed by Sigmund Freud, explains behaviour in terms of unconscious motives, inner conflicts and early childhood experiences. Although it originated in clinical psychology, its ideas have influenced organisational behaviour as well.
(a) Basic Assumptions
- A large part of human behaviour is driven by unconscious desires and fears, of which the individual may not be fully aware.
- Personality is composed of three interacting systems – id (primitive drives), ego (rational reality-oriented part) and superego (conscience, moral values).
- Conflicts between these parts of personality may produce anxiety, which individuals try to handle through defence mechanisms such as repression, rationalisation, projection, etc.
(b) Main Features
- Emphasis on deep-seated motives like desire for power, security, love and recognition.
- Importance of early family experiences in shaping personality and behaviour at work.
- Role of defence mechanisms in explaining apparently irrational behaviour (e.g., excessive aggression, blaming others, resistance to feedback).
(c) Managerial Implications
- Managers should recognise that some employee behaviours (e.g., chronic complaining, hostile attitude) may have deeper psychological roots and may not change by simple instructions.
- Understanding of defence mechanisms helps managers to respond more maturely and not take things “personally”.
- In serious cases, counselling and professional help may be required to deal with emotional problems affecting behaviour.
(d) Evaluation
The psychoanalytic model helps to explain complex emotional and irrational aspects of behaviour that other models may ignore. However, its concepts are difficult to measure objectively and may not be necessary for handling routine organisational issues. It is more useful in counselling and dealing with deep-seated behavioural problems.
5. Humanistic or Self-Concept Model
The humanistic model of behaviour, represented by Maslow, Rogers and others, views human beings as essentially good, responsible and growth-oriented. It emphasises the role of self-concept and higher-level needs in determining behaviour.
(a) Basic Assumptions
- Every individual has an inherent tendency towards growth and self-actualisation if proper conditions are provided.
- Behaviour is strongly influenced by the individual’s self-concept – the way he or she sees and evaluates himself/herself (“Who am I?” “What am I worth?”).
- When there is congruence between self-concept and experiences, behaviour is balanced and healthy. When there is conflict, behaviour becomes defensive.
(b) Main Features
- Emphasis on higher-order needs such as esteem, autonomy, achievement, creativity and meaning in work.
- Employees are seen as whole persons, not just economic beings – their feelings, aspirations and potential are important.
- Humanistic climate is characterised by openness, trust, participation and respect for individual dignity.
(c) Managerial Implications
- Managers should design jobs and work environments that allow employees to use their potential, exercise responsibility and experience personal growth.
- Supportive leadership, recognition, participation in decisions and opportunities for learning strengthen positive self-concept and constructive behaviour.
- Performance appraisal and feedback systems should be fair and developmental rather than purely judgemental, so that they enhance self-esteem instead of damaging it.
(d) Evaluation
The humanistic model has strongly influenced modern approaches like participative management, empowerment, job enrichment and organisational development. Its limitation is that it may appear somewhat idealistic in situations where basic needs are not yet adequately met or where strict control is necessary.
6. Integrated View: Combining the Models
In practice, no single model can fully explain the behaviour of individuals in organisations. Each model focuses on a particular aspect:
- The S–R model highlights the role of environmental stimuli and reinforcement.
- The cognitive model emphasises mental processes and interpretations.
- The social learning model shows the importance of observing others and social context.
- The psychoanalytic model draws attention to unconscious motives and inner conflicts.
- The humanistic model stresses higher-order needs, self-concept and growth.
For an effective manager, the best approach is to adopt an integrated view: to recognise that individual behaviour is the outcome of reinforcement, thinking, social influences, unconscious motives and self-concept, all operating together in a particular organisational environment.
Managerial Significance of Behaviour Models
Understanding different models of individual behaviour is not merely a theoretical exercise; it has practical significance:
- It helps managers to diagnose the reasons behind employee behaviour more accurately instead of making superficial judgements.
- It guides them in choosing appropriate strategies – reward and punishment, counselling, participation, training, role modelling – depending on the nature of the problem.
- It reminds managers that employees are complex human beings and that no single technique will work in all situations; a contingency approach is needed.
Conclusion: To conclude, different models of individual behaviour – behaviouristic (S–R), cognitive, social learning, psychoanalytic and humanistic – offer different but complementary perspectives on why people behave as they do in organisations. Each model rests on certain assumptions and highlights specific forces such as external stimuli, internal thoughts, social influences, unconscious motives and self-concept. A manager who understands these models can interpret behaviour more intelligently and can select appropriate techniques for influencing it. In the field of Psychology for Managers and Organisational Behaviour, these models provide a valuable conceptual foundation for understanding, predicting and controlling individual behaviour at work.