Introduction. No two individuals in an organisation are exactly alike. Even when employees belong to the same family, have similar education and hold similar jobs, they often behave very differently. One may be calm and cooperative, another aggressive and dominating; one may be highly responsible, another casual and careless. These consistent patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving are collectively referred to as the personality of an individual. For a manager, understanding how personality is formed and what factors determine it is essential, because personality strongly influences work behaviour, leadership style, motivation, interpersonal relations and response to organisational situations.
Meaning and Nature of Personality
The term personality is derived from the Latin word persona, which originally meant the mask worn by actors on the stage. In modern psychology, personality does not mean external appearance alone; it refers to the total psychological make-up of an individual.
In simple words, personality may be defined as the relatively stable and organised pattern of behaviour, attitudes, motives and thoughts that an individual exhibits in different situations.
The important features of personality are:
- It is unique to each individual.
- It is relatively stable over time, though it may gradually develop and change.
- It is the result of the interaction between heredity and environment.
- It influences the way a person perceives and reacts to the environment.
Determinants of Personality
Personality is not created by any single factor. It is the outcome of a complex interaction of many influences. For study purposes, the major factors determining personality can be grouped as follows:
- Heredity or biological factors
- Family and socialisation factors
- Cultural factors
- Situational and environmental factors
- Other personal experiences and psychological factors
Important determinants of personality are discussed in detail below.
I. Heredity or Biological Factors
Heredity refers to the biological transmission of physical and psychological characteristics from parents to children through genes. It sets the initial limits within which personality can develop.
1. Genetic Make-up
- Each individual inherits a specific genetic pattern which affects physical structure, nervous system and basic temperament.
- Research indicates that certain traits such as alertness, energy level, emotional reactivity, shyness or sociability have a hereditary basis.
- For example, some children are naturally more active and outgoing; others are quiet and reserved even in early childhood.
2. Physical Characteristics
- Height, weight, body build, complexion, facial attractiveness and general health are largely determined by heredity.
- These physical characteristics influence personality indirectly by affecting how others respond to the person and how he or she views himself/herself.
- For instance, individuals who are physically strong or attractive may develop greater self-confidence, whereas those with physical defects may become shy, withdrawn or aggressive, depending on social treatment.
3. Nervous System and Brain Functioning
- The structure and functioning of the brain and nervous system, which are influenced by genetic factors, affect intelligence, memory and emotional stability.
- Certain extreme personality problems may arise from inherited biochemical imbalances or neurological conditions.
Thus, heredity provides the basic raw material of personality. However, this raw material is shaped and refined by environmental influences.
II. Family and Socialisation Factors
Although the child is born with certain hereditary potentials, his or her family environment plays a vital role in shaping personality. The process by which a child learns the ways of behaviour acceptable to society is known as socialisation.
1. Family Background
- The type of family (nuclear or joint), size of family, economic status and emotional climate influence the developing personality.
- Children brought up in a warm, supportive and democratic family tend to become confident, independent and socially well-adjusted.
- Those raised in a harsh, neglectful or extremely authoritarian family may develop insecurity, submissiveness, hostility or rebelliousness.
2. Parenting Style
- Parents who show love with reasonable control generally produce well-balanced personalities.
- Overprotective parents may make the child dependent and lacking in initiative.
- Parents who use severe punishment or inconsistent discipline may contribute to aggressive, fearful or anxious personalities.
- Parental expectations and encouragement significantly influence the development of achievement motivation and self-confidence.
3. Sibling Relationships
- Position in the family (first-born, middle, youngest, only child) and relationship with brothers and sisters also affect personality.
- For example, first-born children often receive more responsibility and may become more achievement-oriented and conscientious.
- Rivalry or cooperation among siblings shapes attitudes towards competition, sharing and cooperation.
4. Early Social Experiences
- Interactions with relatives, neighbours, school teachers and early peer groups further mould behaviour patterns.
- Experiences of success and failure, reward and punishment, acceptance and rejection are internalised and influence self-concept and future behaviour.
Thus, family and early socialisation create the basic emotional tone, habits, values and attitudes which become central elements of personality.
III. Cultural Factors
Every individual grows up in a particular culture which provides a broad framework of values, beliefs, customs, traditions, religious practices and social norms. Culture exerts a powerful but often subtle influence on personality.
1. Shared Values and Beliefs
- Culture tells people what is considered right or wrong, desirable or undesirable, and shapes their basic values.
- For example, some cultures emphasise individualism (independence, personal achievement), whereas others stress collectivism (cooperation, group harmony).
- These cultural values are reflected in personality characteristics such as assertiveness, conformity, competitiveness and tolerance.
2. Social Norms and Roles
- Culture prescribes appropriate behaviour for different age groups, genders, occupations and social classes.
- People learn to adjust their behaviour to meet these expectations, which gradually become part of their personality.
- For instance, in some societies, children are taught to speak softly and respect elders; in others, they are encouraged to express opinions freely.
3. Religion and Moral Code
- Religious teachings and practices influence attitudes towards work, honesty, discipline, charity, self-control and family life.
- These moral codes form an important part of the individual’s value system and personality.
4. Sub-culture and Regional Influences
- Within a nation, there may be different sub-cultures based on region, language or community.
- These sub-cultures create further variations in lifestyle, habits and outlook, thereby contributing to diversity in personalities.
Therefore, culture acts as a broad shaping force, providing the general pattern within which individual personalities develop.
IV. Situational and Environmental Factors
In addition to heredity, family and culture, the situations and environment in which a person lives and works also have an important impact on personality.
1. Physical Environment
- Climate, geographical location, housing conditions, crowding and physical comfort influence mood, attitudes and behaviour.
- People living in harsh climates or very crowded conditions may develop different coping styles compared to those in comfortable environments.
2. Educational and Institutional Environment
- Schools, colleges and training institutions provide opportunities for learning, discipline, competition and cooperation.
- Quality of education, teacher support, peer influence and exposure to ideas shape intellectual development, social skills and confidence.
3. Occupational and Organisational Environment
- The nature of job, level of responsibility, organisational culture, leadership style, reward system and degree of security affect personality over time.
- Challenging jobs with autonomy and recognition may help individuals become more confident, innovative and responsible.
- On the other hand, monotonous jobs in rigid organisations may promote dependence, apathy or resistance to change.
4. Life Experiences and Critical Incidents
- Major life events such as success, failure, promotion, loss of job, illness, accident, marriage or death of a loved one may significantly modify personality.
- Repeated experiences of success generally build a positive self-concept, while repeated failure may lead to low self-esteem or aggressive behaviour.
5. Economic and Social Conditions
- Economic status, job security, social status and opportunities for upward mobility influence aspirations, confidence and risk-taking behaviour.
- Individuals from economically and socially deprived backgrounds may develop feelings of insecurity, inferiority or hostility, unless provided with support and opportunities.
Hence, personality is not completely fixed; it continues to be influenced and refined by situations and life experiences throughout one’s life.
V. Other Psychological Factors
Some additional internal factors also contribute to personality formation:
1. Self-Concept
- Self-concept is the individual’s perception and evaluation of himself/herself (“Who am I?” “What can I do?”).
- It is built through interaction with others, feedback and experiences of success or failure.
- People with a positive self-concept tend to be more confident, assertive and achievement-oriented, whereas those with a negative self-concept may be shy, dependent or defensive.
2. Level of Aspiration and Achievement Motivation
- Some individuals have a strong need to achieve challenging goals and to excel; others are satisfied with modest achievements.
- This level of aspiration is influenced by early training, rewards and role models and becomes an important aspect of personality.
3. Emotional Patterns and Coping Styles
- Ways in which individuals experience and express emotions like anger, fear, joy and anxiety become part of personality.
- Habitual patterns of coping with stress (problem-solving vs. avoidance, optimism vs. pessimism) also differentiate one personality from another.
Managerial Implications
For a manager, understanding the determinants of personality has practical importance:
- It helps in selecting and placing employees in jobs that match their personality and abilities.
- It guides the design of motivational schemes, leadership styles and communication methods suited to different personality types.
- It makes the manager more tolerant and realistic – he or she realises that many traits are influenced by background factors beyond the employee’s immediate control.
- It suggests that some aspects of personality can be developed and modified through training, counselling and favourable work environment.
Conclusion: To conclude, personality is a complex, multi-dimensional construct which represents the integrated pattern of an individual’s behaviour, thoughts and feelings. It is determined by a combination of hereditary or biological factors, family and socialisation processes, cultural influences, situational and environmental conditions and other psychological factors. No single factor alone can explain personality; rather, it is the result of continuous interaction between the person and his or her environment from birth throughout life. For managers, a sound understanding of these determinants is essential to deal effectively with individual differences, to predict behaviour and to create conditions that bring out the best in each employee.